PARTS OF SPEECH
All the words in English are
classified into following eight groups called Parts of Speech. The same word is
sometimes used in different parts of speech.
Note: The articles (a, an, the) are not
included in parts of speech as they are basically adjectives.
I.NOUNS
These are naming words.
Names of persons,
places, things, animals, species, religions, books, feelings, qualities, groups
(of people, things etc.), races, buildings, languages etc.
Eg: Raju, Delhi, pen, dog, Tommy, boy,
Hindu, Hinduism, happiness, Ramayana, beauty, hardness, army, bundle, Indian,
French, Taj, Telugu etc.
NOUNS
PROPER
NOUNS COMMON
NOUNS ABSTRACT NOUNS
Eg: Raju, Tommy,
Delhi Eg: boy, dog, place Eg: ambition, pain
COUNTABLE NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE
NOUNS
Eg: -
book, pen, boy (common) Eg: - sugar,
salt, oil (common)
-hope, ambition (abstract)
- peace, pain (abstract)
II.
PRONOUNS:
These
are used instead of nouns.
Eg: I, you, he, she, it, they
PRONOUNS
(10 TYPES)
PERSONAL PRONOUS
(I, you, we, he she, it,
they )
|
POSSESIVE PRONOUNS
(mine, our, ours, your,
yours, his, hers, theirs)
|
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
( this, that, these, those)
|
REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS
(myself, yourself,
yourselves, ourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves)
|
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
( someone, somebody,
anyone, anybody,
none, nobody)
|
PRONOUNS OF NUMBER AND
QUANTITY
one, two, three
|
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
(each other, one
another)
|
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
(each, either, neither)
|
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
(who, whom, whose,
which, what)
|
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
( who, whom, whose,
which, that)
|
HOMONYMS:
Homonyms are words with same
spelling and pronunciation but with different meanings.
Eg: bank – bank of a river
bank – place
where money is saved
HOMOPHONES: Homophones are words with same
pronunciation but with different spellings and meanings.
Eg: break = divide violently onto pieces
brake = a device for slowing or stopping motion
one = single
won = past tense
of win
HOMOGRAPHS: Homographs
are words with same spelling but different pronunciation and meaning.
Eg: bow = bend forward /baυ/
bow = weapon / bəʊ /
read = present
tense / ri:d /
read = past tense
/ red/
QUESTIONS FROM JUNE 2014 PAPER
1. This is a lead
pencil. The lion leads the Hawks. The underlined words in these
sentences are called _________________.
2. He did not want to look at Indu too directly
because two of his colleagues are observing him. The underlined words in these
sentences are called _________________.
GENETIVES: adding apostrophe + s
Eg: 1) Anil’s house,
Vilas’s house for famous persons there
is no need of
Archimedes’s house (x) ‘s’ after apostrophe
Archimedes’ house ( )
2)
women’s hostel( )
boys’s hostel(x)
boys’ hostel( )
3) brother – in – law’s house ( one
person )
brothers – in – laws’ houses (more
than one person )
POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES:
my, our, your, her, his, its, their
mine, ours, yours, hers, his, theirs
III. ADJECTIVES: These are used to qualify or modify or add something to the meaning of a
noun or a pronoun.
Eg: beautiful
flower, fast bowler, bald head, Kiran’s book, a
girl(article), Chinese food, she is beautiful.
NOTE: a)
When more than one adjective is used to describe a noun then the order is :
Adj of quality Adj of size/age/shape Adj of colour Adj
of origin -ing/-ed words
used as adjectives nouns used as adjectives
Eg: She has a pretty,
small, red Sri Lankan polished ruby necklace.
The house was spacious, modern and well
– maintained.
b) When there is more than one adjective
before a noun, place a comma after the first adjective of quality. But when
there is more than one adjective after a verb, separate them by ‘and’( when
there are only two); by commas and the last two by ‘and’ (when there are more
than two).
Eg: She loved the
simple, kind large – hearted villagers.
My clothes are clean and new.
Your sister is clever, polite and
affectionate.
Adjectives are of
seven kinds –
1. Descriptive Adjectives – showing
the kind or quality of a person or thing
Eg: small
village, good boy
2. Adjectives of quantity –
indicating how much
Eg: some
sugar
3. Numeral Adjectives – indicate
number
Eg: several
points , two rupees
4. Demonstrative Adjectives – to
point out
Eg: that
girl, such persons
5. Interrogative Adjectives – for
questioning
Eg: where,
when, what
6. Emphasizing Adjectives – for
emphasis
Eg: This is
the very book, I was looking for.
Mind your own business.
7. Exclamatory Adjectives – for
expressing surprise, shock or any other sudden feeling
Eg: How
great it is!
What a wonderful fellow you are!
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Adjectives (and some adverbs also) are compared to each other in three
ways known as Positive, Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Comparison.
Positive Degree: It simply describes the features of a noun/pronoun. It
is also used for comparison when two persons, things etc. have the same
quality.
e.g.: as tall as, as
clever as, as fat as etc.
Comparative Degree: It is used to compare two persons, things etc of
different qualities or quantities. It always takes ‘than’ (exceptions – inferior
to, superior to etc).
e.g.: taller than,
more beautiful than.
Superlative Degree: It is used to compare two or more persons, things
etc.
e.g.: the tallest of all, the most intelligent
girl
Following is a list of three degrees of some
Adjectives –
POSITIVE DEGREE
small
big
intelligent
beautiful
good/well
bad/ill
little
many/much
far
fore
in
old
late
clever
|
COMPARATIVE DEGREE
smaller
bigger
more
intelligent
more
beautiful
better
worse
less
more
farther/further
former
inner
older/elder
later
cleverer/more
clever
|
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
smallest
biggest
most
intelligent
most
beautiful
best
worst
least
most
farthest/furthest
foremost/first
innermost
oldest/eldest
latest(adj)
/ last(adv)
cleverest/
most clever
|
MODEL – I
Rajesh is
the tallest of all boys in the class (OR)
(SUPERLATIVE)
Rajesh is the tallest
boy in the class
Rajesh is taller than any other boy
in the class(OR) (COMPARATIVE)
Rajesh is taller than all other boys in the class
No other boy in the class is as (so) tall as Rajesh. (POSITIVE)
MODEL – II
Rajesh is one of the tallest boys in the class (SUPERLATIVE)
Rajesh is taller than many (most) other boys in the class (COMPARATIVE)
Very few boys in the class are as (so) tall as Rajesh (POSITIVE)
MODEL – III
Rajesh is not the tallest boy in the class (SUPERLATIVE)
Rajesh is not taller than all other boys in the class (COMPARATIVE)
Some boys in the class are at least as tall as Rajesh (POSITIVE)
MODEL – IV
Rajesh is taller than Ramesh (COMPARATIVE)
Ramesh is not as (so) tall as Rajesh (POSITIVE)
MODEL – V
Rajesh is not taller than Ramesh (COMPARATIVE)
Ramesh is at least as tall as Rajesh (POSITIVE)
EXERCISE
1. Mount Everest is
the highest peak in the world.
2. Suman is quicker
than anyone in the group.
3. Pune is closer to
my village than Nagpur is.
4. Mother is not as
tall as her sister.
5. No player in the
team is as tall as Prabhakar.
6. Asha’s house is
farthest from the city than all ours.
7. Nitin’s watch is
less expensive than anyone else’s.
8. Of all the
children, Sudha is the closest to her father.
9. Maharastra is one
of the largest states in the country.
10. Kamala has fewer
chocolates than all her friends.
IV. VERBS: These are used to express action,
condition (state, being), possession or tell/assert something.
e.g.: i) He is playing (action/ work)
ii) He is a
doctor (being)
iii) She is sick
(state)
iv) He has a car
(possession)
v) The sun rises
in the east (assertion)
Kinds of Verbs –
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs:
Transitive verb: a verb which has an object. The action passes from the doer
to the object.
Eg: Dilip eats mangoes
Subject
verb object
He goes to school
Subject verb
He gave me
a book
Subject
verb indirect direct
object
object
Intransitive verb: a verb which has no object. It doesn’t have passive voice.
Eg: The
child is sleeping.
Subject verb
He goes
to school
Subject verb
He gave me
a book
Subject verb indirect
direct
object object
Ergative Verb: A verb which can be used both as an
intransitive and transitive verb is called ergative verb.
Eg: The door opened (Intransitive verb)
She opened the
door (Transitive verb)
Auxiliary Verbs: These are Helping verbs which are used
along with the main verbs to form tenses, moods and voices. These are 24 in
number.
Finite and Non –
Finite Verbs: Verbs
which are limited by person and number are called finite verbs.
Eg: Shekhar
likes mangoes (finite verb)
Shekhar likes to eat mangoes
(non-finite verb)
Shekhar likes eating mangoes
(non-finite)
Modal verbs: Modal verbs or Modals are auxiliary verbs. They are used to
express the speaker’s attitudes and beliefs with regard to the action
represented by the main verbs.
Following are the
thirteen Modal verbs in English –
Can, could, may, might – used to ask or give permission and
to make requests
Will, would – to make requests, to invite, to
offer something
Shall, could, might – to make suggestions
Can, could – to show ability
Will, may, might, could,
would, should, ought to – used to indicate degrees f possibility.
Eg: Satish is at home now (fact)
Satish will be at home now. (certainty)
Satish should/must be at home now. (likely/probable)
Satish might/could be at home now (possible,
not very certain)
Must, have to – necessity, compulsion
Need not – no compulsion, prohibition
Should, ought to – moral or social obligation, duty
Must, need, have to,
should, ought to –
to give advice
Shall – order, command, threaten
Dare to – to express fearlessness
Used to – to refer to habits in the past
Forms of Verbs:
V1 – Present Tense – e.g.: eat/eats
V2 – Past Tense – e.g.: ate
V3 – Past Participle – e.g.: eaten
V4 – Present Participle – e.g.: eating
Regular and
Irregular Verbs:
Regular verbs: Verbs whose past tense (V2) and the
past participle (V3) forms are formed by adding 'd’ or ‘ed’ to the simple
present(V1)
Eg: wonder –
wondered –wondered
V1 V2 V3
Irregular verbs: Verbs whose past tense (V2) and past participle (V3)
forms are formed in other ways i.e. not by adding/ed to the simple present (V1)
Eg: eat – ate
– eaten
V1 V2
V3
Three/ four forms of some Verbs:
PRESENT TENSE
(V1)
|
PAST TENSE
(V2)
|
PAST PARTICIPLE
(V3)
|
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
(V4 / ‘ing’ form)
|
bring
buy
help
give
forget
fly
flow
lie
sit
learn
fix
cut
hurt
set
rise
sew
|
brought
bought
helped
gave
forgot
flew
flowed
lied/lay
sat
learned/learnt
fixed
cut
hurt
set
rose
sewed
|
brought
bought
helped
given
forgotten
flown
flowed
lied/lain
sat
learned/learnt
fixed
cut
hurt
set
risen
sewed/sewn
|
bringing
buying
helping
giving
forgetting
flying
flowing
lying
sitting
learning
fixing
cutting
hurting
setting
rising
sewing
|
V. ADVERBS: Adverbs are words used to qualify verbs, adjectives,
other adverbs and sometimes complete sentences. They may be single words or may
be a group of words.
Eg: i) He ran fast.
verb adverb
ii) He ran very fast.
verb adv2 adv1
iii) I am terribly
tired.
adv adj
iv) She is the most
intelligent girl in the class.
Adv adj noun
v) Honestly, you
are my best friend.
Adverb sentence
Note:
1. Adverbs
are formed by adding ‘-ly’, ‘-ily’, -wards, -ways or –wise to other adverbs or
nouns.
Eg: slowly, happily,
upwards, clockwise, lengthways.
2. Few words
can be used both as adjectives and adverbs.
Eg: fast, hard, early
i) He wakes up early.
Adv
ii) He is an early
riser.
Adj
3. Adverbs
that consist of a group of words include prepositions such as in, on, by etc.
Eg: We went to
the farm on foot.
Verb Adverb
4. Adverbs
are used to describe manner, place, time, frequency and degree of an
incident/action. They are also used to strengthen or negate the meaning of the
words which they qualify.
Eg: i) It is raining heavily.
(manner = how)
ii) There is water everywhere.
They drove to Vizag. ( place =
where / in which direction)
iii) Let’s meet tomorrow.
The meeting is on
Wednesday. (time = when)
iv) He practices the
violin regularly.
Your mobile rang four
times. ( frequency = how often)
v) We nearly
lost the race.
I almost fell
down.(degree = how much/ to what extent)
vi) He never
drinks tea.
I am no more
confused about the topic. (negation)
vii) He is only joking.
Frankly, I am confused. ( strengthen = focus/show one’s
attitude or opinion)
5. The appropriate
order of adverbs in a sentence is MPT ( manner, place, time)
Eg: He drove slowly
round the park in the evening.
M P T
6. When there are
more than one time-adverbs in a sentence, the appropriate order is time, day,
date, year.
Eg: I met her at 5 O’
clock in the evening on Thursday, 6 September, 2004.
7. Some
adverbs have forms for degrees of comparison –
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Well/good
better
best
Late
later last
(latest = adj)
Far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
Quietly more quietly
most quietly
VI. PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word which shows
the relation between a noun/pronoun and some other word/sentence.
Kinds of Prepositions:
i) Single word prepositions:
e.g.: on, in, at, with, by, for, from, of, to, upon etc.
ii) Phrasal
Prepositions – two or more words joining together to act as a single
preposition.
Eg:
on account of, instead of, in spite of, with respect to etc.
iii) Certain verbs,
nous, adjectives and participles take only specific prepositions after them.
Such prepositions are called Appropriate prepositions.
Eg:
listen to, fond of, based on, compare with etc.
Prepositions have
different functions. They are used to indicate –
1. time
e.g.: Sudha returned at
6 o’ clock.
i)
point of time
e.g.: by 4o’clock,since Monday, from
10:00 pm, before noon etc
ii) period of time
e.g.: in an hour, within four days, for two months
2. position
Eg:
Rahul sat between Ram and Raj (‘between’ is followed by ‘and’)
3. movement and direction
Eg: Rekha went from Hyderabad to Tirupathi (from……… to)
4. reason
Eg:
The college remained closed because of strike.
5.purpose
Eg: We went to the market for vegetables.
6. instrument
Eg:
Jaya cut the lemon with a knife.
7. means
Eg:
Let’s go to Mumbai by bus.
8. concession
Eg:
In spite of getting less marks, the teacher praised him.
9. comparison
Eg:
She looks like an angel.
10. manner
Eg:
She does all her work with great care.
11. source
Eg:
She copied all her assignments from her friend’s notes.
Examples of words followed by specific prepositions:
VERB PREPOSITION OBJECT
OF PREPOSITION
congratulate on
something
compare with
similar things, persons
compare to dissimilar things
recover from
illness
laugh at
a person, thing
knock at
a door etc.
die
of
disease
die
for
country, cause
NOUN PREPOSITION OBJECT
OF PREPOSITION
knowledge of
something
surprise at
something
thirst for something
quarrel between two
persons
quarrel among
more than two persons
attitude towards
something
ADJECTIVE PREPOSITION OBJECT
OF PREPOSITION
ashamed of something
answerable to
someone
deprived of
one’s right etc.
moved to
tears
indebted to
someone
popular with
men, women, people etc.
The words that follow
prepositions are called their objects and the prepositions are said to govern
them.
QUESTIONS FROM JUNE 2014 PAPER
1. I wanted
to exchange my watch _____ a camera, but the shop manager didn’t oblige me.
2. Harish attends
_____ his duties very sincerely.
3. The student failed
to cope ______ with the exam pressure.
VII. CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word used to join together words, phrases,
clauses or sentences.
Kinds of Conjunctions
1. Subordinate Conjunctions – used
to join subordinate clause with main clause / principal clause.
Clause : group of words
forming a part of a sentence and having a subject and a predicate of its own.
I cannot attend
school because I am not well.
Main clause Subordinate clause
Because
= subordinate conjunction
Eg:
as, it, because, lest, since, that, though, although, unless, weather, till,
until, before, after, when, while etc.
2.
Co-ordinate Conjunctions – used
to join two clauses of equal rank/co-ordinate clauses.
Eg:
and, but, both, or, not, else, still, yet, for, therefore, so, hence,
wherefore, consequently, then, also, too, only etc.
Eg: I went to Delhi and my brother went to Bombay.
3.
Correlative Conjunctions –
used in pairs
Eg: either-or,
neither-nor, though-yet, both-and, so-as, as-as etc.
Eg: Either come with
me or go home.
4. Phrasal Conjunctions –
Eg: as far as, as
though, in as much as, so that, in order that etc.
VIII. INTERJECTIONS
An Interjection is a word which
expresses some sudden and strong feeling such as joy, sorrow, fear, surprise
etc.
Eg: Hurrah!, Ah!,
Oh!, Alas!, Ho!, Wow! etc.
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